Marks for Revising and Editing
Delete the material.	There are six six traits.
Spelling error.	Comon marks will help with editing.
Close the gap.	Organi zation is crit ical.
Start a new paragraph.	"What can one exclamation point tell us?" queried Watson. "You'd be surprised," retorted Sherlock.
No new paragraph.	Lonesome Dove is a long book. Of course, Moby Dick is long, too--but not everyone finishes Moby Dick.
Insert a letter, word, phrase, or punctuation mark.	Good writing has a voice.
Insert a space.	The hook mustgrab the reader.
Transpose letters or words.	Gary Paulsen wrote, "Read a like wolf eats."
Add a period.	Write what you think
Insert a hyphen.	That's one two ton cat you have there.
Insert an apostrophe.	Garrison Kellors essay on letter writing inspired me.
Add quotation marks.	I try to leave out the parts that people skip, said novelist-screenwriter Elmore Leonard.
Change lowercase to capital.	ronald Dahl never shrinks from reality--even if it's ugly.
Change capital to lowercase.	The Truth lies in the Details.
Change style.	spell out *Main St. (Street), 3 days (three), Libby, MT (Montana) abbreviate *Libby, Montana (MT), Doctor Faustus (Dr.) Use numerals *one hundred one (101)
Italicize.	Fast Food Nation left me frightened.
Revise/comma splice.	You write well, I can too.
Revise/verb tense.	After she spoke, she drinks her water.
Revise/awkward.	Although some civility remained, the vast majority was lost.
Revise/agreement problem/or pronoun.	There's only active verbs left.
Revise/ too informal.	A lot of people attend school here.
Revise/word choice.	Jed was exported from class.
Revise/weak transition.	In conclusion, a writer wants a strong ending.
Add evidence.	It is clear to the reader that Atticus was a moral man.
Find and correct error.	I must of forgot to do my homework.
Info/wording not specific.	The author uses a great deal of devices.
Thesis statement needs improved.	Many people disagree with the death penalty.

Acknowledgments

With permission of the publishers, the following works were consulted during the compilation of this handbook:

Bozeman High School English Department Writing Lab. Bozeman High School Writer’s Handbook. Second Edition.2004.

Faigley, Lester. The Brief Penguin Handbook. New York: Longman,

2003.

Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers.

Fifth Edition. New York: MLA, 1999.

Hackerman, Diana. A Pocket Style Manual. Third Edition. Boston:

Bedford/St. Martin’s Press, 2000.

Kinneavy, James L. and John E. Warriner. Elements of Writing.

Revised Edition. Austin: Holt, 1998.

Kirszner, Laurie and Stephen Mandell. The Brief Holt Handbook.

Third Edition. Fort Worth: Harcourt, 2001.

Lundsford, Andrea, Robert Connors, and Cheryl Glenn. St. Martin’s Handbook. Third Edition. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995.

Macmillan English. New York: Scribner Educational, 1986.

Skwire, David. Writing with a Thesis. Sixth Edition. Fort Worth:

Harcourt Brace, 1994.

Revise/sentence fragment.	While he revised his writing.
Revise/run on.	I cannot stop to catch my breath this sentence reads like a runaway train.
Revise/Verb Tense	After she spoke, she drinks her water.
Revise/awkward	Although some civility remained, the vast majority was lost.
Revise/agreement or pronoun problem	There’s only active verbs left.
Revise/too informal	A lot of people attend school here.
Revise/word choice	Jed was exported from class.
Revise/weak transition	In conclusion, a writer wants a strong ending.
Add evidence	It is clear to the reader that Atticus was a moral man.
Find and correct error	I must of forgot to do my homework.
Info/wording not specific	The author uses a great deal of devices.
Thesis statement needs improvement	Many people disagree with the death penalty.

Style Guidelines

These style guidelines apply to all TFHS writing assignments–
not just research writing.

Names of Persons

State a person’s name fully and accurately the first time it is used in the text of a paper. In subsequent references to the person, give the last name only (assuming you refer only to one person with that last name in your paper).

Numbers

Spell out numbers that are written in one or two words (ten, ninety, five thousand, two hundred) and represent all other numbers by numerals (515). Use numerals for all numbers that precede a percent symbol or technical units of measurement (10%, 5 mm). Never begin a sentence with a numeral. Always use numerals with abbreviations or symbols (95 º), in addresses, in decimal fractions, and in page references. Large numbers should be expressed by a combination of numerals and words (14 million). Always express related numbers in the same style.

Times of Day

Use numerals to express most times of day (11:15 a.m.); spell out hours when followed by o’clock (four o’clock).

Capitalization & Punctuation of Titles of Works

Capitalize the first word, the last word, and all principal words (including those that follow hyphens in compound terms), even if your source doesn’t follow this rule, such as an Internet article.
Do not capitalize the following parts of speech (unless they are the first or last word of a title): articles(a, an, the), prepositions(to, from, of), conjunctions(and, but, or), or the to in infinitives.

Italicized Titles

Italicize (underline in handwritten form) the titles of works that are published independently, such as books, plays, long poems published as books, pamphlets, periodicals, films, radio and television programs, CDs, audiocassettes, videocassettes, web sites, ballets, operas, works of art, ships, aircraft, and spacecraft.

Quotation Marks

· Use quotation marks to surround the titles of works published within larger works, such as articles, essays, short stories, short poems, chapters of books, individual episodes of television and radio programs, sections of a web site, songs, and unpublished works (e.g., lectures and speeches).

· Use quotation marks to enclose a term used with skepticism or irony. (He thinks he’s so “cool”.)

Active Voice

The active voice is usually more direct and vigorous than the passive:

I shall always remember my first visit to Boston.

This is much better than:

My first visit to Boston will always be remembered by me.

The latter sentence is less direct, less bold, and less concise.

The habitual use of the active voice makes for forcible writing. This is true in writing of any kind. Many a tame sentence of description or exposition can be made lively and emphatic by substituting a transitive in the active voice for some such perfunctory expression as there or could be heard.

PASSIVE VOICE ACTIVE VOICE

There were a great number of dead Dead leaves covered the ground.

leaves lying on the ground.

At the dawn the crowing of a rooster The cock’s crow came at dawn.

could be heard.

The reason he left college was that Failing health compelled him to

his health became impaired. leave college.

Note, in the examples above, that when a sentence is made stronger, it usually becomes shorter. Thus, be concise.

Sentence Structure

The structure of a sentence is classified as simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex, depending on the number and types of clauses it contains.

A simple sentence contains just one independent clause and no dependent clauses.

NOTE: A simple sentence may have a compound subject, a compound predicate, and an unlimited number of modifiers.

A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses but no dependent clauses.

A complex sentence contains just one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.

A compound-complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

PUNCTUATION

End Marks

• Use a period at the end of a declarative sentence.

• Use a question mark at the end of an interrogative sentence. Do not use a question mark at the end of a declarative sentence containing an indirect question.

• Use an exclamation point at the end of an exclamatory sentence. (Use sparingly.)

• Use either a period or an exclamation point at the end of an imperative sentence, depending on whether the command is polite (use a period) or forceful (use an exclamation point).

• Most abbreviations are followed by a period.

Commas

1. Introductory Elements—Use a comma after introductory adverb clauses, participial phrases, long prepositional phrases, or elements that precede the main clause in a sentence.

Examples: Six days after the warranty expired, the car broke down.

Gazing across the channel, Matt listened to the tide come in.

Hidden in the gnarled brush, the thrush flung forth its soul in song.

Yes, you should try to memorize these six rules.

Fortunately, you have only five more to remember.

2. Interrupters—Use commas around elements that interrupt the sense of the main clause and do not add essential information (these are sometimes call nonrestrictive modifiers). NOTE: Commas around interrupters come in pairs. If you use one comma, you must have a second one.

Examples: The team, exhausted after the grueling game, filed onto the bus.

The formula, which is on page 38, will solve all your problems.

No one, not even the people in the front row, could see the film.

3. Afterthoughts—Use a comma before an element that comes after the main clause in a sentence and is nonrestrictive. The element may be helpful in expressing a certain idea; however, it is not an essential part of the sentence.

Examples: We foraged through the refrigerator, searching for artichokes.

The wind beat against the lonely child, who was huddled beneath the

awning.

No one knew the correct answer, not even the professor.

The dealer drew our attention to the latest models, glistening beneath the

spotlight.

4. Compound Sentences—Use a comma before the coordinating conjunction (i.e. and, but, or) that separates the two independent clauses in a compound sentence. (Do not make the mistake of placing a comma before every coordinating conjunction. Make sure that the conjunction is joining two independent clauses. This sentence needs no comma: We were tired but went to the meeting anyway.)

Examples: It is bad enough that the sidewalks are in such horrible condition, but it is even worse that the streets are full of potholes.

A driver has to avoid broken bottles, or he or she is likely to have a

flat tire.

Dangerous chemical substances are polluting our water supplies, and

debris is piling up outside our doors.

5. Items in a Series—Use commas between each item in a series of three or more. (The comma before the conjunction joining the last two items in the series is optional.)

Examples: Coke, Pepsi, and R.C. manufacture carbonated beverages.

The vandals had torn the screens from the window, shattered the glass, and entered the cabin.

Diedrich, Geoffrey, Humphrey, and Washington were the pseudonyms that he used.

6. Equal Modifiers—Use a comma between two modifiers of the same type that are modifying the same word. One test to see whether you have equal modifiers is to insert the word and between the modifiers. If this insertion can be made without altering the meaning of the sentence, the modifiers are considered equal. They should be separated with a comma.

Examples: The dull, mildewed walls were covered with antique carvings.

Let me never feel the fateful thrilling that devastates the lovelorn, dejected wooer’s frame.

A white-shouldered, broad-browed maiden opened the gate.

Jay could not see that Daisy was a self-centered, egotistical socialite.

7. Using Commas with appositives

An appositive is a noun or noun substitute that renames a nearby noun or noun substitute. When an appositive is not essential to identify what it renames, it is set off with commas. An essential appositive, which gives necessary specific information about a noun, is not set off by commas.

NONRESTRICTIVE APPOSITIVES

Example: Ms. Baker, my high school chemistry teacher, inspired my love of science. [Ms. Baker’s name identifies her; the appositive simply provides extra information.]

Beethoven’s only opera, Fidelio, includes the famous “Prisoner’s Chorus.” [Beethoven wrote only one opera, so its name is not essential.]

RESTRICTIVE APPPOSITIVES

Example: The editorial cartoonist Thomas Nast helped bring about the downfall of the Tweed ring in New York City. [The appositive identifies The editorial cartoonist as a specific cartoonist.] Mozart’s opera The Marriage of Figaro was considered revolutionary. [The appositive is restrictive because Mozart wrote more than one opera.]

8. Use commas to set off words in direct address (The question, Sam, is...).

9. Use commas to set off titles following a person’s name (George Washington, President, served as General.).

10. Use commas to set off parts of an address, a date, or a geographical term (Three Forks, Montana; July 19, 1999).

11. Use a comma after the salutation of an informal letter and after the closing of all letters (Dear Sally, Sincerely,).

Colons

• Use a colon before a list of things, especially following words such as these, as follows, or the following.

NOTE: Do not use a colon if the list immediately follows a verb or a preposition.

• Use a colon before a statement that illustrates, explains, or restates the preceding material (She had one dream: to play professional basketball).

• Use a colon before a long or formal quotation (We began a series of workshops on nonviolence, and we repeatedly asked ourselves: “Are you able to accept blows without retaliation?” –Martin Luther King Jr.).

• Use a colon between the hour and the minute when writing time (4:49 p.m.).

• Use a colon between the chapter and verse when referring to the Bible (Deuteronomy 17:2-7).

• Use a colon after the salutation of a business letter. (Dear Sir or Madam:)

Semicolons

• Use a semicolon between independent clauses that are not joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, yet, so, or for). (On Mother’s Day, Good Souls conscientiously wear carnations; on St. Patrick’s day, they faithfully don boutonnieres of shamrocks; on Columbus Day, they carefully pin on miniature Italian flags.)

NOTE: Even when independent clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction, a semicolon (rather than a comma) may be needed before the coordinating conjunction—when the clauses already contain commas.

• Use a semicolon between independent clauses that are joined by a conjunctive adverb (such as however, therefore, moreover, nevertheless, furthermore, meanwhile, and consequently). (The circus comes as close to being the world in microcosm as anything I know; in a way, it puts all the rest of show business in the shade. –E.B. White, “The Ring of Time”)

• Use a semicolon between independent clauses that are joined by certain transitional expressions (such as for example, as a result, that is, in other words, for instance, and in fact). (Florida’s mild winter climate is ideal for bicycling; in addition, the terrain is very flat.)

• Use a semicolon between items in a series when the items contain commas. (Anthropology encompasses archaeology, the study of ancient civilization through artifact; linguistics, the study of the structure and development of language; and cultural anthropology, the study of the way of life of various peoples, especially small, nonindustrialized societies.)

Apostrophes

Singular nouns and indefinite pronouns

For singular nouns and indefinite pronouns, add an apostrophe plus –s: –‘s. Even singular nouns that end in –s usually follow this principle.

Iris’s coat

everyone’s favorite

a woman’s choice

today’s news

the team’s equipment

There are a few exceptions to adding –‘s for singular nouns:

· Awkward pronunciations Herodotus’ travels, Jesus’ sermons

· Official names of certain places, institutions, companies Governors Island, Teachers College of Columbia University, Mothers Café, Saks Fifth Avenue, Walgreens Pharmacy. Note, however, that many companies do include the apostrophe: Denny’s Restaurant, Macy’s, McDonald’s, Wendy’s Old Fashioned Hamburgers.

Plural Nouns

For Plural nouns that do not end in –s, add an apostrophe plus –s: -‘s.

women’s rights

media’s responsibility

children’s section

For plural nouns that end in –s, add only an apostrophe at the end.

dancers’ costumes

attorneys’ briefs

the Kennedys’ legacy

Compound nouns

For compound nouns, add an apostrophe plus –s to the last word: -‘s.

my mother-in-law’s house

mayor of Cleveland’s speech

Two or more nouns

For joint possession, add an apostrophe plus –s to the final noun: -‘s.

mother and dad’s yard

Ben and Jerry’s Ice Cream

When people possess or own things separately, add an apostrophe plus –s to each noun: -‘s.

Roberto’s and Edward’s views are totally opposed.

Dominique, Sally’s, and Vinatha’s cars all need new tires.

When to use apostrophes to make plurals

The plurals of letters, symbols, and words referred to as words are made by adding an apostrophe plus –s: -‘s. These don’t show ownership.

Mind your p’s and q’s.

The message bounced because the @’s are placed incorrectly in the email addresses.

Take a few of the and’s out of your writing.

Nouns expressing time and amounts as adjectives have apostrophes

-- a month’s time (singular)

-- four days’ wait (plural)

Contractions

Contractions combine two words into one, using the apostrophe to mark what is left out.

I am = I’m we are = we’re

I would = I’d they are = they’re

In formal writing, as a general rule, avoid using contractions.

Use apostrophes to show omission of numerals: The Class of ‘89

Common errors with apostrophes

Do not use an apostrophe to make a noun plural

INCORRECT The government’s agreed to meet.

CORRECT The two governments agreed to meet.

INCORRECT The video game console’s of the past were one-

dimensional.

CORRECT The video game consoles of the past were one-

dimensional.

Do not use an apostrophe to make family names plural.

INCORRECT You’ve heard of keeping up with the Jones’s.

CORRECT You’ve heard of keeping up with the Joneses.

Remember: Add only –s = plural

Add apostrophe plus –s = possessive

Possessive forms of personal pronouns never take the apostrophe

Incorrect her’s, it’s, our’s, your’s, theirs

The bird sang in it’s cage.

Correct hers, its, ours, yours, theirs

The bird sang in its cage

Remember: It’s = It is

Apostrophes are not used with the plural of numbers and acronyms

The style manuals of the Modern Language Association (MLA) and the American Psychological Association (APA) do not use apostrophes for indicating plurals of numbers and acronyms. They add only –s.

1890s four CEOs several VCRs

eights these URLs the images are all JPEGs

Parentheses

• Use parentheses to surround material that is extra or of minor importance in a sentence. Any punctuation marks needed by the parenthetical material belong inside the parentheses; punctuation marks needed by the sentence as a whole belong outside of the parentheses. A complete sentence enclosed by parentheses contained within another sentence should not be capitalized and should not include end punctuation.

• Use parentheses to surround numbers or letters indicating items in a list that is run into your text (i.e. (1), (A)).

Hyphens

• Use a hyphen after any prefix joined to a proper noun or a proper adjective (Post-World War II).

• Use a hyphen after the prefixes all-, ex- (meaning “former”), and self- (ex-con).

NOTE: Use a hyphen after the prefix anti- when it joins a word beginning with i (anti-inflammatory. Also, use a hyphen after a prefix to eliminate confusion between words that look alike but are different in meaning and in pronunciation.

• Use a hyphen in a compound adjective that precedes the noun it modifies (well-known musician).

NOTE: Do not use a hyphen when one of the modifiers is an adverb that ends in -ly.

NOTE: Certain compound adjectives are always hyphenated, even when they follow the nouns they modify. And other compound adjectives are actually single words. When unsure, consult a dictionary.

• Use a hyphen when spelling out a fraction used as an adjective or an adverb (one-half cup).

• Use a hyphen between two numerals that indicate a span (2005-2006).

Dashes

• A dash is made either by typing two hyphens or by typing an em dash (--) on a computer. In either case, no space should be left before, after, or in between the dash.

• Use dashes to set off and add emphasis to parenthetical material in a sentence (The Titanic sank on April 14, 1912—a tragedy that could have been easily prevented.).

NOTE: Usually commas or parentheses are used in such situations, but dashes can sometimes add clarity and crispness to the supplemental information.

• Use a dash to indicate an abrupt change in thought within a sentence.

• Use a dash to indicate a hesitation or interruption in dialogue or speech. (“Why did everybody get so quiet all of a-” Sylvia stopped in her tracks.)

• Use a dash to set off an appositive or an appositive phrase.

NOTE: Usually commas set off appositives.

Punctuation of Direct Quotations

• Use quotation marks to enclose a direct quotation. (“Stop!” he shouted.)

• Use single quotation marks to surround a quotation within a quotation. (Becky complained, “My mother always said ‘Clean your room.’”)

NOTE: A direct quotation begins with a capital letter, unless it is clearly just a portion of a sentence and is not intended to stand by itself. When a direct quotation is interrupted by explanatory remarks (such as he said or said Mary), called words of attribution, the second part of the quotation begins with a lowercase letter—unless it is a complete sentence.

• Only the words actually spoken by the character lie within the quotation marks.

• The reader must be able to tell who is saying what:

-If two people are speaking, only occasional attribution is

necessary.

-If more than two people are conversing, it is usually necessary

to attribute the dialogue at every line—unless the context of the

dialogue clearly identifies the speaker.

-The line of dialogue should be indented with each new speaker,

even if it is just one word. However, if the dialogue begins,

ends, or sits in the midst of a narrative paragraph, it is not

necessary to indent the dialogue if it involves a single speaker.

• Be careful to maintain correct sentence structure if the line of dialogue is more than one sentence.

• Periods and commas always come before the closing quotation mark.

• An exclamation point or a question mark is placed inside quotation marks when it punctuates the quotation; it is placed outside when it punctuates the main sentence. (I almost croaked when he asked, “That won’t be a problem, will it?”) (Did he really say, “Finish this by tomorrow”?)

• Separate tags or signals with a comma. If the attribution comes before the dialogue, the comma follows the attribution. If the dialogue comes first, the comma comes after the last spoken word and before the closing quotation mark. (My brother said, “I’m hungry.”) (“I’m hungry,” my brother said.)

Italics [underlining]

• Italicize foreign words.

• Italicize words, letters and numerals used to represent themselves.

NOTE: When writing by hand, indicate italics by underlining.

Abbreviations

• An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or group of words. Often, the use of abbreviations can make writing more concise with no loss of clarity.

• Use the official postal service abbreviation for states (two uppercase letters, no period) only when addressing mail or when the ZIP-code is included.

• Certain abbreviations are written without periods. When unsure, consult a dictionary.

NOTE: When a sentence ends with an abbreviation that requires a period, do not add another period to end the sentence. When such a sentence ends with a question mark or an exclamation point, do use the period and the second punctuation mark. (Did he get his Ph.D.?)

• When writing in paragraph format spell out words such as street, avenue,

boulevard, months of the year, days of the week (Saturday), and units of

measurement (miles, inch).

6+1 TRAITS

Three Forks High School has adopted the 6+1 Trait model for assessing student writing. This model provides accurate, reliable feedback to students and teachers that can help guide instruction. Research has identified common characteristics of good writing (ideas, organization, voice, word choice, sentence fluency, conventions, and presentation). These qualities serve as the framework for the 6+1 Trait model. The model allows students and teachers to use a common language as we refine our idea of what “good” writing looks like.

Not all TFHS teachers will use the 6+1 Trait model to assess every student work submitted for evaluation, and not all traits need to be used when using the 6+1 Trait model to assess an assignment.

The following is a brief description of the 6+1 Trait Model:

1. IDEAS: The heart of the message, the content of the piece, the main theme, with details that enrich and develop that theme

· Strong ideas present a clear message that is not “garbled”

· Strong ideas include details that are interesting, important and informative

2. ORGANIZATION: The structure of a piece of writing or “skeleton” on which to put the ideas or “meat”

· Strong organization includes having a clear beginning and end

· Strong organization will include transitions that connect ideas

· Strong organization gives readers the right information at the right time in the right doses

· Strong organization includes clear paragraphs that are unified

3. CONVENTIONS: The mechanical correctness of a piece of writing—spelling, punctuation, grammar, etc.

· Strong conventions means that writing has been edited and proofread with care

4. VOICE: The writer coming through the words

· Strong voice gives the sense that a real person in speaking to us and cares about the message

· Strong voice includes a personal tone and flavor to the piece of writing

· Writers achieve voice through the words they chose to use, the structure of their sentences, and the creative details they include, among other things

5. WORD CHOICE: The use of rich, colorful, precise language

· Strong word choice does more than just get the message across; it also moves and enlightens the reader

· Strong word choice is NOT using big words to impress the reader but rather the skill to use everyday language well

· Strong word choice will avoid vague words like “very” “really” “good” “bad” “so” etc.

· Your purpose and audience will determine your word choice

6. SENTENCE FLUENCY: The rhythm and flow of the language—the way writing “sounds” to the ear

· Fluent writing has rhythm and movement

· Fluent writing is free from awkward word patterns that slow the reader’s progress

· Fluent writing has sentences that vary in length and style

7. PRESENTATION: The way we exhibit our message on paper or for an oral presentation

· Strong presentation invites a reader to read (or hear) the message

· Strong presentation involves the final step of writing process—publishing

· It includes formatting, presenting, or dramatizing the piece of writing

THE ESSAY

Perhaps the most typical form of writing required of high school students is the essay, a multi-paragraph composition on a single topic. Often, the assignment will call for a brief (500–1,500 words), formal (avoiding slang, clichés, contractions), objective (remaining in the third-person voice–not using “I” or “you”) presentation of ideas.

The underlying purpose of the essay is usually to (a) inform the reader by explaining ideas and presenting facts (expository); (b) make the reader see, hear, feel, taste, and smell something—at least in the imagination (descriptive); (c) influence the reader to accept an idea, adopt a point of view, or perform an action (persuasive); or (d) tell a story (narrative).

The following model often proves to be an effective pattern in which to present such essays. TFHS students are encouraged to become proficient at this “five paragraph essay” model before experimenting with alternative models.

Model: Writing about Literature

INTRODUCTION

1. Identify title and author

2. Introduce topic

3. Narrow from topic to thesis

4. State thesis

BODY (actual number of body paragraphs should be

determined by the logical, organized expansion

of the thesis)

1. State topic of paragraph

2. Generally expand topic

3. Provide specific, detailed support from literature

4. Explain how the details support

topic

5. Bring paragraph to completion

CONCLUSION

1. Restate thesis

2. Summarize main points of body

paragraphs

3. Draw a conclusion

(answer "So what?")

Following is a list of frequently used key words, concepts and explanations you may be asked to do in typical essay writing assignments:

analyze: break the subject down into its essential parts and critically

examine those parts

compare: show similarities and differences

contrast: show differences

describe: present the features of something in detail

discuss: tell what you know about a subject, trying to give a

balanced presentation

evaluate/criticize: judge a subject carefully, giving positive and

negative aspects

explain: clarify and interpret the details of a subject

summarize: give a brief account of the main features of a subject

trace: follow the development of a subject step by step in

chronological order

Following are the basic elements of an essay:

Thesis Statement: A single sentence (or sometimes two or three sentences) which clearly and simply states the central, controlling idea of the essay. A thesis is the basic stand you take, the opinion you express, the point you make about your limited subject. It’s your controlling idea, tying together and giving direction to all other separate elements in your paper. Your primary purpose is to persuade the reader that your thesis is a valid one.

Characteristics of a Thesis Statement

1. A thesis is not a statement of absolute fact.

· A thesis makes a judgment or interpretation. There is no way to spend a whole paper supporting a statement that needs no support.

2. A thesis is not the whole essay.

· A thesis is your main idea, often expressed in a single sentence (thesis statement).

3. A good thesis is restricted.

· A good thesis deals with restricted, bite-sized issues rather than issues that would require a lifetime to discuss intelligently. The more restricted the thesis, the better the chances are for supporting it fully.

4. A good thesis is unified.

· The thesis expresses one major idea about its subject. The tight structural strength of your paper depends on its working to support one idea.

5. A thesis is not a title.

· The thesis does not suggest the main idea; it is the main idea.

6. A thesis is not an announcement of the subject.

· A thesis takes a stand. It expresses an attitude toward the subject. It is not the subject itself.

7. A good thesis is specific.

· Do not be vague. Do what you say you are going to do. Cover all the ideas expressed in your thesis.

8. Avoid using categorical terms like “everybody,” “always,” “everyone,” “no one,” etc.

Writing with a thesis obviously gives a paper a sense of purpose and eliminates the problem of aimless drift. Your purpose is to support and prove the thesis. Always stay on task and never lose sight of the points your thesis suggests. As a result, writing with a thesis helps significantly in organizing the paper.

Organization: The logical and effective arrangement and sequence of ideas in a piece of writing

Using Transitional Words and Phrases: Transitional words and phrases clarify the relationship among sentences by establishing the spatial, chronological, and logical connections within a paragraph.

To Signal Time

afterward as soon as at first at the same time

in the meantime later before earlier

finally meanwhile next now

soon subsequently then until

To Signal Comparison

also by the same token in comparison

likewise similarly

To Signal Contrast

although but despite even though

however in contrast instead meanwhile

nevertheless nonetheless on the contrary yet

on the one hand on the other hand still whereas

To Signal Examples

for example for instance namely specifically

thus

To Signal Narrowing of Focus

after all indeed in fact in other words

in particular specifically that is

To Signal Conclusions or Summaries

as a result consequently in conclusion in other words

in summary therefore thus to conclude

To Signal Concession

admittedly certainly granted naturally

of course

To Signal Causes or Effects

accordingly as a result because consequently

hence since so then

therefore

Unity: The presentation of just one central idea without digression into irrelevant or unrelated ideas

Development: Thorough explanation and support of all general statements; the gradual enlargement and clarification of the thesis

Coherence: Clear, smooth, effective connections made among all ideas; relationships among ideas are logically displayed

The Essay Test

The following process is an effective way to plan and write successful essay tests:

1. Read the question/direction statement carefully. Identify key words and concepts (see page 17). Be sure to respond to all parts of the question.

2. Plan your response: Briefly list, on scratch paper, the main ideas of your response and important supporting details; let the question guide your organization; decide how many paragraphs you will write and the topics of each.

3. Echo the question/direction statement with your opening sentence.

4. Provide sufficient supporting details for each generalization! Be sure to demonstrate how thoroughly you understand the topic. Accurately use the vocabulary of the subject area.

5. Write deliberately, composing each sentence in your mind before writing. (You won’t have time for major revising.)

6. Allow time to proofread your response briefly; draw a single line through any deletions; make corrections neatly.

The College Admissions Essay

When applying for college admissions and scholarships, entering writing contests, and sometimes when seeking employment, students may be asked to compose an essay as part of the admissions/entry/employment process. Such essays are excellent ways for selection committees to evaluate your critical thinking skills, writing skills, depth, perspective, and ability to follow directions.

The subject of the essay is sometimes provided (“Describe one personal experience during high school that helped shape your career or personal goals.”); be sure to address the specific topic—read and re-read the question before you begin. Sometimes the essay section of an application is open-ended, requiring you to choose the topic. Try to spend several days keeping the essay in the back of your mind; you may discover an ideal subject this way.

The following guidelines can help you write a successful essay:

• Write honestly: Resist the temptation to embellish the truth, making yourself sound like the next Einstein or Mother Teresa. Admissions officers are looking for you and what you can contribute.

• Write personally: College admissions officers are trying to understand the whole person. The essay portion of the application is your opportunity to communicate facets of who you are that cannot easily be measured. Provide something about yourself not found in other parts of the application. Include personal anecdotes. Write an essay that will stand out–in a positive way–and yet remain real at the same time.

	Summary	Paraphrase	Direct Quotation
WHEN to use	* to shorten or condense a long section	* to simplify complex material *to make technical language clearer *to give a detailed interpretation and evaluation of the source	*for unusually important information *for controversial ideas which needs direct support *give insight *clinch argument
HOW to take notes	*use abbreviations & fragments *use your own writing style *deal only with the essential points, while maintaining the author's intent	*rewrite by restating *writing style should be completely your own	*copy exactly
HOW to use in paper	*provide background information *cite other sources that support a principal source *draw a conclusion	*written as though you were saying it, but the idea is always attributed to the author	*Jones says, "…" *Smith describes, "…"
CITATION	*parenthetical citation	*parenthetical citation	*quotation marks and *parenthetical citation

• Consider your audience: College admissions officers must swiftly read thousands of essays each year; therefore, you want to make every word count. Avoid wordiness. Be specific. Do not repeat information that appears elsewhere in your application. Be mindful of what your audience already knows about you from transcripts and test scores.

• Begin by freewriting/brainstorming/drafting: Talk with others (friends, family, teachers, etc.) about your essay, developing ideas and perspective. Draft with passion, getting all your ideas out; do not worry about length at this time. Revise later.

• Revise and edit carefully: Make sure you are following directions and that your organization is logical and effective. Conclude with a powerful sense of completion. Use strong, precise words. Edit carefully (spelling, capitalization, punctuation, usage). Proofread your work and type it accurately.

TAKING NOTES

Sample Formal
Business/Cover Letter

20531 East Main Street

Bozeman, MT 59715

5 January 2004

Ms. Ellen Kent

Plants and Soils of Florida, Inc.

P.O. Box 1471

Baytown, FL 33101

Dear Ms. Kent:

I read with interest the listing in the Bozeman Daily Chronicle dated 30 December 1999 of a position available with your organization’s summer intern program. I will graduate from Bozeman High School on 9 June 2000, and I hope to work for a year in the area of plant pathology before attending college in the fall of 2001.

Upon reading your job listing, I went online and was impressed by the mission statement for Plants and Soils of Florida, Inc. as it appears on your web site. I believe that I share the same passion and approach to plant and soil management as is embodied by this statement.

As my enclosed résumé indicates, I have worked for two summers in the Plant Pathology Lab at Montana State University–Bozeman, gaining valuable experience in gathering and classifying samples of diseased winter wheat. For the past two years, I have managed my own small business, providing lawn care and snow removal service for more than forty residences. I plan to prepare for a career in the study of plant pathology, specializing in crop diseases of underdeveloped nations of the western hemisphere.

Please provide me with any application materials necessary for this intern position. I may be reached at home (406) 555-5555 if you desire any additional information. Thank you for your consideration, and I look forward to hearing from you soon.

Sincerely,

Fred C. Dobbs

Fred C. Dobbs

Sample Student Résumé

Fred C. Dobbs

20531 East Main Street

Bozeman, MT 59715

(406) 555-5555

Objective To gain experience in the field of plant and soil sciences;

ultimately to study crop diseases of underdeveloped nations of the western hemisphere

Education Bozeman High School

205 North 11th Avenue

Bozeman, MT 59715

Expected graduation: June 2001; Current GPA: 3.47

Special courses: AP Computer Science, Metals I and II

Work June 1998–present

Experience Residential Lawns & Snow Removal

20531 East Main Street

Bozeman, MT 59715

For more than two years I have run my own business, maintaining lawns and removing snow for over forty homes in the Bozeman area; currently employ two assistants

Volunteer June–August 1999 and June–August 1998

Experience MSU Plant & Soil Science Lab

Bozeman, MT 59717

Collected data in the field and assisted lab staff in the study of alfalfa diseases of the Northern Rockies

June 1998–present

Bozeman Community Gardens

Cultivate garden plots & maintain lawns surrounding the Community Food Co-op gardens

References Mr. Joe Brown Mrs. Sally Lantiny

Manager, Pizza Hut Business Teacher

25 Stadium Dr. Three Forks High School

Bozeman, MT 59714 2555 Circle Loop

406-555-5555 Three Forks, MT 59752

406-222-2222

THE RESEARCH PAPER

The following section provides information on the process of documentation.

MLA Documentation

Three Forks High School has adopted the Modern Language Association (MLA) style for writing research papers.

Quotations

Quotations, when used selectively, can be effective elements of writing. Use quotations only when the original passage is particularly vivid, unusual, controversial, or difficult to paraphrase accurately. The accuracy of quotations in research writing is extremely important. You may wish to construct a clear, grammatically correct sentence that introduces or incorporates a quotation with accuracy; or you may paraphrase the original passage and integrate fragments of quotations into your text.

Quotations (Prose)

If a prose quotation runs no more than four typed lines, put it in quotation marks and incorporate it into your paragraph. Place the sentence period after the parenthetical reference for the quotation. If a quotation runs more than four typed lines, set it off from your text by (1) beginning a new line, (2) indenting all quoted lines one inch from the left margin [drag both indent markers from “0” to “1” of the ruler], (3) continuing to double-space all lines—without adding any quotation marks that do not appear in the original [if the entire quotation consists of dialogue, do not surround it with quotation marks], and (4) placing the parenthetical reference after the end punctuation for the sentence. Do not indent the first line more than the rest, unless you quote two or more paragraphs; when quoting two or more paragraphs, indent the first line of each paragraph an additional quarter inch.

Quotations (Poetry)

If you quote no more than three lines of verse, put them in quotation marks and incorporate the quotation into your paragraph. To separate the quoted lines, use a slash with a space on each side. Verse quotations of more than three lines should be set off from your text by (1) beginning on a new line, (2) indenting all lines one inch from the left margin—unless the quotation involves special spacing, (3) continuing to double-space all lines—without adding any quotation marks that do not appear in the original, and (4) placing the parenthetical reference after the end punctuation [if any exists] of the final line of the quotation.

Ellipsis

When you omit a word, a phrase, a sentence, or more from a quoted passage, you must use an ellipsis (or spaced periods) to indicate that your quotation does not completely reproduce the original. To distinguish between your ellipses and the spaced periods that might appear in the original work, place square brackets around the ellipses that you add (e.g., “The velocity of such an object is [. . .] unpredictable.”) For an ellipsis within a sentence, use three periods with a space before each and a space after the last. For an ellipsis at the end of a sentence, use a period, then an ellipsis. However, if a parenthetical reference follows the ellipsis at the end of a sentence, place the sentence period after the final parenthesis.

Plagiarism

To plagiarize is to use another’s ideas or expressions in your writing without acknowledging the source. Plagiarism is intellectual theft. You may certainly use another’s words and ideas in your research paper, but the borrowed material must not seem to be your creation.

A type of self-plagiarism occurs when a student submits in a course a paper completed for a previous course. This constitutes cheating. If you wish to rework a previously submitted paper, secure permission from your current teacher.

With the use of Internet sources, the related issue of copyright infringement has become increasingly relevant. Many people seem to think that online material may be reproduced and distributed freely. However, most Internet material is protected by copyright law and should be treated by the writer of a research paper in the same manner as printed works. Cutting and pasting from the Internet to your document without appropriate citation is considered plagiarism, and may result in a zero on the assignment.

The writer of a research paper must acknowledge the source of everything that has been borrowed from other—not only direct quotations and restatement of others’ words, but also information and ideas. Common sense should dictate what needs to be documented. For instance, common knowledge (“The United States celebrates its independence each Fourth of July”) and familiar proverbs (“Two wrongs don’t make a right”) rarely require documentation. But the writer must make certain that no borrowed material is mistaken for his own. When in doubt, cite the source.

The Internet

Electronic media, especially the World Wide Web, make available a vast array of primary and secondary source material. Effectively using such resources, however, requires special attention from the researcher—attention not usually required when using traditional print material. Evaluating World Wide Web sites, for example, requires careful determination of the author and authority of the information, as well as its accuracy, currency, and verifiability. You may begin your research with databases the library subscribes to:

InfoTrac <http://infotrac.galegroup.com>, and World Book Online <http://www.worldbookonline.com>.

These links can also be accessed from home via the school’s website and the library link found there. <www.threeforksschools.com>

Additionally, you should maintain a log of all sites viewed, as well as the date each site is accessed. The URL and access dates are necessary for your list of works cited. And since Internet sites sometimes disappear altogether, download or print any material you use, making later verification possible. This is especially important since many TFHS teachers require that hard copies of Internet sites be submitted with the final paper. Caution: Carefully read the section of this handbook regarding plagiarism (see page 26), considering those issues particular to electronic publications.

Most teachers allow and many encourage using Internet sources. But relying on Internet sources alone is rarely considered adequate research for a paper. Most topics require the use of print publications. Electronic mail and online “chats” may prove helpful in sharing ideas but are not considered acceptable resources for academic research. Be sure to check with your teacher about using the Internet.

Format of the Research Paper

Leave margins of one inch at the top and bottom and on both sides of the text. Using a RUNNING HEADER for your page numbers. This consists of your last name and page number in the upper right hand corner. (To create this on a Word Document, go to View, select Header/Footer, in the box that appears on your screen tab over to the right margin, next type your last name and then select the icon for page number located in a box # . Do not use the abbreviation p. before a page number or add a period, a hyphen, or any other punctuation mark. Research papers are double-spaced throughout, including quotations and the list of works cited.

The editors of the Modern Language Association discourage the use of title pages. Therefore, beginning on the first line of page one only, flush with the left margin, type your name, your teacher’s name, the course name/period, and the date on separate lines, striking one return between the lines. Strike one return after the date and center the title. Do not underline, italicize, make bold, increase font size, or put the title inside quotation marks. Set the title in title case (capitalize the first letter of the first word, the last word, and all principal words–including those that follow hyphens in compound terms; do not capitalize articles, coordinating conjunctions, prepositions, or the to in infinitives when they fall in the middle of a title). Strike one return between the title and the first line of text. Return to left alignment. Indent the first word of each paragraph one-half inch from the left margin. To see an example format of an essay’s first page see page 38 .

Outline

Your teachers may ask you to use an outline like this example as you plan and pre-write your paper.

ORGANIZATION OUTLINE

I. Introduction

A. Hook:

B. Thesis statement:

II. Body

A. Main idea:

Details 1.

2.

3.

4.

B. Main idea:

Details 1.

2.

3.

4.

C. Main idea:

Details 1.

2.

3.

4.

III. Conclusion

A. Summary of ideas:

1.

2.

3.

4.

B. Final thought:

Basic In-Text Citation

The parenthetical citation located at the end of the following sentence exemplifies MLA style:

Because of its mathematical vagueness, Newton’s clever attempt to solve the mystery of the creation of the universe is ultimately unsatisfactory (Davies 46).

The citation (Davies 46) indicates that the information contained in the sentence was derived from page 46 of a work authored by someone named Davies. More information regarding this source can be found in the works cited list located at the end of the research paper. The following is an example of such information:

Davies, Paul. The Mind of God: The Scientific Basis for a Rational World. New York: Simon, 1983.

This entry indicates that the author of the work entitled The Mind of God: The Scientific Basis for a Rational World is Paul Davies. Additionally, the book was published in New York by Simon & Schuster in 1983.

The in-text citation in MLA style contains only enough information to allow the reader to locate the source in the works cited list. If an author’s name is included in the text of the paper, immediately before the information requiring documentation, only the page number should appear in the citation (221). If two or more works by an author appear in the works-cited list, a shortened version of the title (often just the first word of the title) is also included in the citation: (Davies, Mind 86). If you wish to include two or more works in a single parenthetical reference, use semicolons to separate the citations (Smith 29; Brown 10). See page 38 for an example of in-text citations.

List of Works Cited

The list of works cited appears at the end of the research paper. This list contains all the works that have been cited in the text of the paper. Start the list on a new page (insert a return and a page break after the final line of your text), continuing the page numbering of the text. Center the heading, Works Cited, on the first line of the page (an inch from the top of the paper). Strike one return between the title and the first work listed. Double-space the entire list, within and between entries. Each entry begins flush with the left margin. When an entry runs more than a single line, indent any subsequent lines one-half inch (i.e., set hanging indentation).

Alphabetize entries by the author’s last name, using the letter-by-letter system:

MacDougal, Steve

McVickers, Colleen

Saint-Exupéry, Antoine de

St. James, Claire

If the list contains two or more works by the same author, alphabetize these entries by title. Include the author’s name in the first entry only. In subsequent entries by that author, type three hyphens followed by a period in place of the name; the three hyphens stand for exactly the same name as in the preceding entry:

Frost, Robert.

---.

If two or more entries by coauthors begin with the same name, alphabetize by the last names of the second authors listed:

Johnson, William, and Miriam Bourke

Johnson, William, and Earl Swinth

If no author’s name is given, alphabetize by the title, ignoring any initial A, An, or The.

The Dictionary of Cycling

An Encyclopedia of Medical Procedures

Works Consulted: Your teacher may ask you to include a list of works consulted. These are sources used in your research that you did not cite in the text of your essay. The citation format for these entries follows MLA guidelines

Sample Works-Cited Entries

The basic works-cited entry contains the following information:

Author’s last name, first name. Title of the Work. Place of
publication: Publisher, year of publication.

Always reverse the author’s name, placing a comma after the last name and a period after the complete name. Give the author’s name as it appears on the title page. Omit titles, affiliations, and degrees that precede or follow names:

Jeanne H. Boyd, PhD [title page]

Boyd, Jeanne H. [works-cited list]

Sir Randolph Worthington [title page]

Worthington, Randolph [works-cited list]

A suffix that is an essential part of a name (e.g., Jr. or III) appears after the name, preceded by a comma:

Brown, David Franklin, Jr.

Rockefeller, John D., IV.

List the full title of the work, as it appears on the title page, set in italics and followed by a period. If the work has a subtitle, place a colon after the main title (unless the main title ends in some other punctuation mark) and a period after the entire title.

The place of publication and publisher (and sometimes the date of publication) should be taken from the title page of the work. Any information not located on the title page can usually be found on the copyright page (the reverse side of the title page). If multiple publishers or locations are listed, use only the first. For cities outside the United States, add an abbreviation for the country (or Canadian province). Shorten the name of the publisher. Use the latest copyright year listed. Place a colon (followed by two spaces) between the place of publication and the publisher, a comma between the publisher and the date, and a period following the date.

If you are citing an article, an essay, a short story, a poem, or some other work that appears within a collection, you need to give the inclusive page numbers of the piece you are citing (following the publication date and a period). If an article is not printed on consecutive pages, give only the first page number followed by a plus sign (6+). If the collection arranges works alphabetically, you may omit page numbers.

In the list of works cited, abbreviate the names of months (except for May, June, and July) as follows:

Jan. Apr. July Oct.

Feb. May Aug. Nov.

Mar. June Sept. Dec.

SAMPLE WORKS CITED ENTRIES
Print Resources

Book: One Author

Cook, Margaret G. The New Library Key. New York: Wilson, 1963.

Book: Two Authors

Houghton, Walter, and Robert Strange. Victorian Poetry and Poetics. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1959.

Book: Three Authors

Allport, Gordon, Phillip E. Vernon, and Gardner Lindzey. Study of Values. New York: Houghton, 1951.

Book: More Than Three Authors

Campbell, Angus, et al. The American Voter. New York: Wiley, 1964.

Two or More Books by the Same Author

Cook, Margaret G. The New Library Key. New York: Wilson, 1963.

---. A System for Text Management. New York: Farrar, 1968.

Book: No Author

The National Lottery. London: Watts, 1932.

Book: Editor, No Author

Seltzer, Lawrence H., and Frances Thomas, eds. Economic Recovery Issues. Detroit: Wayne State UP, 1974.

An Introduction, a Preface, a Foreword, or an Afterword

Elliott, Emory. Afterword. The Jungle. By Upton Sinclair. New York: Bantam, 1985. vii-xvii.

A Work in an Anthology

Allende, Isabel. “Toad’s Mouth.” Trans. Margaret Sayers Peden. A Hammock beneath the Mangoes: Stories from Latin America. Ed. Thomas Colchie. New York: Plume, 1992. 83-88.

Article in a Reference Book (State volume number of a multivolume work.)

Brakeley, Theresa C. “Mourning Songs.” Funk and Wagnalls Standard Dictionary of Folklore, Mythology, and Legend. Ed. Maria Leach and Jerome Fried. New York: Crowell, 1950.

Kermode, Frank. “A Babylonish Dialect.” Contemporary Literary Criticism. Vol. 57. Ed. Roger Matuz. Detroit: Gale, 1990. 200-01.

Stark, John. “Thomas Pynchon.” Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume Two: American Novelists since World War II. Ed. Jeffrey Helterman and Richard Layman. Detroit: Gale, 1978.

Pamphlet (Treat a pamphlet as you would a book.)

Best Museums: New York City. New York: Trip Builder, 1993.

Government Publication (often printed by the Government Printing Office, abbreviated as GPO)

United States. Dept. of Labor. Child Care: A Workforce Issue. Washington: GPO, 1988.

The Bible [mention title of edition in the text of your paper; list chapter

and verse in parenthetical citation, e.g. (Ezek. 1.5-10)]

The Holy Bible. Revised Berkeley Version. Nashville: Gideons International, 1993.

Encyclopedia Article

Carter, J.W. “Geometry.” The World Book Encyclopedia. 1988 ed.

“Sitting Bull.” Encyclopedia Americana. 15th ed. 1993.

Magazine Article

Howe, Irving. “At Ease in Apocalypse.” Harper’s 16 Sept. 1968: 76-78.

Newspaper Article

Fuerbringer, Jonathan. “Budgetary Rhythms.” New York Times 20 Mar. 1987: A8.

Film

It’s a Wonderful Life. Dir. Frank Capra. RKO, 1946.

Film on Videocassette

It’s a Wonderful Life. Dir. Frank Capra. 1946. Videocassette. Republic, 1988.

Interview

Nought, John. Personal interview. 2 May 1994.

Electronic Resources

Electronic publications (especially World Wide Web pages) are not as fixed and stable as print material. Therefore, additional information about electronic work

A typical entry for a World Wide Web page contains the following information:

Author’s last name, first name. “Title (or main heading) of web page.”

Title of web site. Date web page was accessed <complete URL>.

Friedwald, Will. “The Essence of Duke Ellington.” An Appreciation

of the Great Duke Ellington. The Duke Ellington Society. 21 Sept. 1998 <http://duke.fuse.net/essence/index.html>.

If no author’s name can be found, begin with the title of the page. If the information contains a publication date (e.g., copyright date, date modified, date uplinked), include this date after the name of the web page or after the name of the site, whichever applies. Always include the date the site was accessed, immediately before the web address (Uniform Resource Locator). Enclose URL in angle brackets. When a URL must be divided between two lines, break it only following a slash. When word processing, insert a “soft return” to break lines by striking SHIFT + RETURN.

Since web addresses can change frequently, and their length and complexity can result in typographical errors, accuracy in supplying other information (e.g., author’s name, title of site) is vital.

The following are examples of works-cited entries for several types of electronic publications commonly cited in research papers. If you cannot find some of this information, cite what is available. Do NOT include page numbers in Works Cited entries for electronic resources.

If you cannot identify the source of the information on a World Wide Web site or the credibility of its authorship, do not use the information in an academic research paper.

SAMPLE WORKS CITED ENTRIES
Electronic Resources

A Publication on CD-ROM

Braunmiller, A.R., ed. Macbeth. By William Shakespeare. CD-ROM. New York: Voyager, 1994.

InfoTrac (Use the URL in this example for all works located via the TFHS subscription to InfoTrac including InfoTrac newspapers.) **You can find the correct citation format for InfoTrac at the bottom of your InfoTrac page under “Source Citation.”**

Williamson, Kevin D. “Losing Gordon Gekko: Wall Street has gone over to the Democrats. Should conservatives miss it?.” National Review 61.4 (March 9, 2009 <http://find.galegroup.com/ips/start.do?prodID=IPS>.

A Work from World Book Online

Gundersen, Joan R. “Colonial Life in America.” World Book Online. 26 Feb. 2003 <http://www.worldbookonline.com/wbol/wbPage/
na/ar/co/124100>.

A Single Document within a Larger Website

“Lesson One: Greetings.” Portuguese Language Page. U of Chicago. 1 May 2004 <http://humanities.uchicago.edu/romance/port/>.

An Article in an Online Newspaper

Markoff, John. “The Voice on the Phone Is Not Human, but It’s Helpful.” New York Times on the Web 21 June 1998. 25 June 2000 <http://www.nytimes.com/library/tech/98/06/biztech/articles/

21voice.html>.

An Article in an Online Magazine

Kinsley, Michael. “Now Is the Summer of Too Much Content.” Slate 20 June 1998. 25 June 2004 <http://www.slate.com/98-06-20/Readme.asp>.

A Document within an Online Information Database

“City Profile: San Francisco.” CNN Interactive. 19 June 1998. Cable News Network. 26 Nov. 2004 <http://www.cnn.com/TRAVEL/
CITY.GUIDES/WTR/north.america.profiles/nap.sanfran.html>.

An Online Scholarly Project

Victorian Women Writers Project. Ed. Perry Willett. June 1998. Indiana U. 26 June 2003 <http://www.indiana.edu/~letrs/vwwp/>.

An Online Book

Hawthorne, Nathaniel. Twice-Told Tales. Ed. George Parsons Lathrop. Boston: Houghton, 1883. 1 Mar. 2000 <http://eldred.ne.mediaone.net/nh/ttt.html>.

Email Communication

Danford, Tom. “Monday Greetings.” Email to Terry Craig. 13 Sept. 1993.

A Personal Web Site

Lancashire, Ian. Home page. 1 May 1997. <http://www.chass.utoronto.ca:8080/~ian/index.html>.

Sample MLA Research Paper first page

See page 27 for information on proper margins and line spacing

Josephson 1

Suzy Josephson

Mrs. Brown

Sophomore Composition

7 April 2006

Ellington’s Adventures in Music and Geography

In studying the influence of Latin American, African, and Asian music on modern American composers, music historians tend to discuss such figures as Aaron Copeland, George Gershwin, Henry Cowell, Alan Hovhaness, and John Cage (Griffiths, Greenberg, and Olander 104-39). They usually overlook Duke Ellington, whom Peter Gammond rightly calls “one of America’s great composers” (318), probably because they are familiar only with Ellington’s popular pieces, like “Sophisticated Lady,” “Mood Indigo,” and “Solitude.” Still little known are the many ambitious orchestral suites Ellington composed, several of which, such as The Liberian Suite and The Latin American Suite, explore his impressions of the people, places, and music of other countries.

Not all music critics, however, have ignored Ellington’s excursions into longer musical forms. In the 1950s, for example, while Ellington was still alive, James C. Baker compared him with Ravel, Delius, and Debussy:

The continually inquiring mind of Ellington [. . .] has sought to extend steadily the imaginative boundaries of the musical form on which it subsists. [. . .] Ellington since the mid-1930s has been engaged upon extending both the imagery and the formal construction of written jazz. (133-35)

Ellington’s earliest attempts to move beyond the three-minute limit—imposed on popular music by radio station programmers—sound disorganized and self-conscious. The Liberian Suite, for instance, contains erratic orchestral layers as well as changes in key and time signature which add little to the emotional effectiveness of the work (Freidwald). Another early orchestral composition, The Latin American Suite, switches so frequently among rhythms and tones as to produce little more than confusion and exhaustion in the listener (Hitchcock et al. 26-7; Marsalis 13).

Sample MLA Research Paper final page

See page29-30 for information on proper margins and line spacing

Josephson 15

Works Cited

Baker, James C. Masters of Jazz: Lives That Shaped American Music.

New York: Random, 1959.

Ellington, Duke. The Latin American Suite. LP. RCA, 1965.

---. The Liberian Suite. LP. Philips, 1947.

“Ellington, Edward ‘Duke.’” Britannica Book of Music. Ed. Benjamin

Hadley. Garden City: Doubleday, 1980.

Friedwald, Will. “The Essence of Duke Ellington.” An Appreciation of

the Great Duke Ellington. The Duke Ellington Society. 21 Sept.

1998 <http://duke.fuse.net/essence/index.html>.

Gammond, Peter, ed. Duke Ellington: His Life and Music. New York:

DaCapo, 1977.

Griffiths, Paul, Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander. A Concise

History of Avant-Garde Music: From Debussy to Boulez. New

York: Oxford UP, 1978.

Hitchcock, H. Wiley, et al. “Duke Ellington—Seriously.” Time 23 Oct.

1994: 24-27.

Kermode, Frank. “A Babylonish Dialect.” Contemporary Literary

Criticism. Ed. Roger Matuz. Vol. 57. Detroit: Gale, 1990.

200-01.

Marsalis, Wynton. Foreword. Beyond Category: The Life and

Genius of Duke Ellington. By John Edward Hasse. New York:

Simon, 1993. 13-14.

“Music Theory.” Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. CD-ROM. 1997 ed.

Stark, John. “Thomas Pynchon.” Dictionary of Literary Biography,

Volume Two: American Novelists since World War II. Ed.

Jeffrey Helterman and Richard Layman. Detroit: Gale, 1978.

411-16.

Yardley, Jonathan.“Duke’s Place.”Washington Post 28 Sept. 1998:C2.

GLOSSARY OF USAGE

This glossary provides guidance in choosing between two words that are often confused. It also includes certain words and expressions that should be avoided completely when one is speaking or writing for formal situations.

The examples included in this glossary were taken from Elements of Writing, MacMillan’s English and Student’s Book of College English. Refer to these texts for additional examples.

a lot, alot This expression is always written as two words, and means “a large amount.” Some authorities suggest avoiding it altogether in formal English.

• A lot of television programs show too much television violence.

• Many television programs show too much television violence.

accept, except Accept is a verb that means “to receive” or “to agree to.” Except is usually a preposition that means “but.”

• Miki decided to accept the invitation to lunch.

• The restaurant is open every day except Monday.

affect, effect Although affect and effect sound nearly the same, they should not be confused. Affect is a verb that means “to cause a change in, to influence.” Effect may be a noun or a verb. As a noun it means “result.” As a verb it means to “to bring about or accomplish.”

• Daily exercise will affect your health. [verb meaning “influence”]

• Daily exercise will have a good effect on your health. [noun meaning “result”]

• Daily exercise will effect a positive change in your health. [verb meaning “bring about”]

advice, advise Advice is a noun. Advise is a verb.

• His advice to me was to leave town by noon.

• I advise you to start walking and not look back.

all right, alright Write this expression as two words. Although often seen in print as one word, most authorities prefer all right.

• I hope the baby is all right.

amount, number Amount and number both refer to quantity. Use amount when referring to nouns that cannot be counted. Use number when referring to nouns that can be counted.

• A huge amount of lava spurted from the erupting volcano.

• A number of volcanoes are still active today.

a while, awhile A while is made up of an article and a noun. In and for often come before a while, forming a prepositional phrase. Awhile is an adverb; it follows an action verb.

• Stay right here for a while.

• I hope you planned to wait awhile.

bad, badly Always use bad as an adjective. Therefore, bad is used after linking verbs. Use badly as an adverb. Badly usually follows action verbs.

• The machine made a bad copy. [adjective]

• The potato smelled bad. [adjective following linking verb]

• I felt bad about your poor grades. [adjective following linking verb]

• His cut is bleeding badly. [adverb following action verb]

between, among Use between when you are referring to two things at a time, even though they may be part of a group consisting of more than two.

• Take the seat between Alicia and Noreen in the third row.

• What is the difference between Anna Pavlova and other ballet dancers?

• The manager could not decide which of the four players to select because there was not much difference between them. (Although there are more than two players, each one is being compared with the others separately.)

Use among with groups of three or more:

• The committee members argued among themselves.

• We were able to collect only ten dollars among the four of us.

bring, take Bring means “to come carrying something.” Take means “to go carrying something.” Think of bring as related to “come” and take as related to “go.”

• Bring that box over here.

• Now take it to the basement.

compose, comprise Compose means “to make up, to constitute.” Comprise means “to be made up of, to encompass.”

• Thirteen separate colonies composed the original United States.

• The original United States comprised thirteen separate colonies.

continual, continuous Continuous means “completely uninterrupted, without any pause.” Continual means “frequently repeated, but with interruptions or pauses.”

• The continuous noise at the party next door kept us awake.

• The patient received continuous, around-the-clock care.

• He had a bad cold and blew his nose continually.

• She changed jobs continually.

could of, might of, must of, should of, would of After could, might, must, should or would, use the helping verb have, not the preposition of.

• I could have danced all night.

• I might have won the singing award if I had not lost my voice the day before.

different from, different than Different from is preferable in all circumstances.

disinterested, uninterested Disinterested means “impartial, unbiased.” Uninterested means “bored, indifferent.”

• The audience was uninterested in the boring play.
• A disinterested judge is necessary for a fair trial.

each Each takes a singular verb and a singular pronoun.

• Each breed of dog has its own virtues.

farther, further Use farther for geographic distance, further for everything else.

• Manhattan is eighteen miles farther down I-90.

• We should discuss that matter further.

fewer, less Use fewer when referring to nouns that can be counted. Use less when referring to nouns that cannot be counted. Less may also be used with figures that are seen as a single amount or quantity.

• Buy fewer apples than you did last week.

• We cooked less rice last night.

• The rent was less than $400. [The money is treated as a single sum, not as individual dollars.]

good, well Always use good as an adjective. Well may be used as an adverb of manner telling how ably something was done or as an adjective meaning “in good health.”

• The child is a good speaker. [adjective]

• The child looks good in that coat. [adjective after linking verb]

• The child speaks well. [adverb of manner]

• The child is not well right now. [adjective meaning “in good health”]

he/she, his/her, him/her, he or she, his or hers, him or her These efforts to achieve gender equality in language usually sound strained and pompous. Use a plural subject and pronoun, choose one gender or the other when writing generically, or reconstruct the sentence to eliminate sexist language.

Poor: If a student is late, he/she will receive a tardy.

Better: If a student is late, he or she will receive a tardy.

Better: If a student is late, she will receive a tardy.

Better: Students who are late will receive tardies.

hopefully Hopefully is an adverb, which means that it modifies and usually appears next to or close to a verb, adjective, or another adverb. Think “with hope.”

• The farmers searched hopefully for a sign of rain.

• Hopefully, the children ran down the stairs on Christmas morning.

Hopefully does not mean “I hope, he hopes, it is hoped that . . . . “ Avoid using it in sentences like the following:

• Hopefully, we can deal with this mess this week.

• The new driver’s license program, hopefully, will cut down on traffic fatalities.

I believe, in my opinion, personally Often unnecessary and usually best avoided in persuasive writing. It is understood that you are the author of the paper, and as such, what you are writing is what you believe. I believe, in my opinion, and personally weaken the tone of your writing. Persuade the reader. State your opinion forcefully, as fact. (This is not to say, however, that you should fudge facts.)

Poor: I believe it is wrong to discriminate against people.

Better: It is wrong to discriminate against people.

imply, infer Something implied is something suggested or indicated, though not expressed. Something inferred is something deduced from evidence at hand.

• Farming implies early rising.

• Since he was a farmer, we inferred that he got up early.

its, it’s, its’ This little three-letter combination causes more errors than any other grouping of letters in the English language. Its is the possessive form of it. It’s is a contraction of it is and should never be used unless it means precisely this. There is no such form or word as its’ in the language.

• The dress has lost its shape. [possessive of “it”]

• I think it’s going to rain. [contraction of “it is”]

-ize Do not coin verbs by adding this suffix. Many good and useful verbs do end in -ize: summarize, temporize, fraternize, harmonize, fertilize. But there is a growing list of abominations: containerize, customize, prioritize, finalize, to name four. Be suspicious of -ize; let your ear and your eye guide you. Never tack -ize onto a noun to create a verb. Usually you will discover that a useful verb already exists. Why say “utilize” when there is the simple, unpretentious word “use”?

lay, lie People often confuse these two words in both writing and speaking. Lay means “to put” or “to place”; it takes a direct object. Lie means “to recline” or “to be positioned”; it never takes an object.

• Lay the bar of soap on the edge of the sink.

• I like to lie under a shade tree in the summer.

Problems arise particularly in using the principal parts of these verbs. Notice, for example, that the past tense of lie is lay. Learn all the principal parts of these verbs.

like Not to be used for the conjunction as. Like governs nouns and pronouns; before phrases and clauses the equivalent word is as.

• We spent the evening as in the good old days.

• She thinks as I do in this matter.

• He drives like a maniac.

• Chloë smells like a rose.

loose, lose Loose means “free,” “not firmly attached,” or “not fitting tightly.” Lose means “to have no longer,” “to misplace,” or “to fail to win.”

• My watch is so loose that I’m afraid I will lose it.

may be, maybe May be is a verb form meaning “could be, can be.” Maybe is an adverb meaning “perhaps.”

• I may be wrong, but I feel that Light in August is Faulkner’s finest novel.

• Maybe we ought to start all over again.

none None means “no one” or “not one” and takes a singular verb and pronoun.

• None of these women understands that she is a public servant.

• None of those men is willing to accept his responsibilities.

O.K. Colloquial English, also spelled okay, or OK.

principle, principal Principal refers to something highest in importance or rank. It also refers to the head of a school. Principle means “a basic truth, standard, or rule of behavior.”

• In the third act of the play, the principal character is killed in a car accident.

• The Constitution was founded on the principle that all men are created equal.

raise, rise The verb raise means “to cause to move upward” and always takes an object. Rise means “to go up”; it is an intransitive verb and so does not take an object.

• We will raise the flag at sunrise.

• A helium-filled balloon will rise high into the air.

secondly, thirdly, etc. Unless you are prepared to begin with firstly and defend it (which will be difficult), do not prettify numbers with -ly. Modern usage prefers second, t